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Table 1 Overview of the current level of validationa of candidate BFIs

From: Biomarkers of moderate alcohol intake and alcoholic beverages: a systematic literature review

Food item

Metabolites

Biofluid locations

Questionsb

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Alcohol

Ethanol

Breath/blood/urine

Y

Y

Y

Yc

Y

Y

Y

Y

Methanol

Blood

Y

Yd

Y

N

Nd

Y

Y

U

Acetaldehyde

Blood/urine

Y

U

U

Uc

U

U

U

U

Ethyl glucuronide

Blood/urine

Y

Yd

Y

Yc

Y

Y

Y

Y

Hair

Y

Yd

U

Nc

Y

Y

Y

U

Ethyl sulfate

Blood/urine

Y

Yd

Y

Yc

Y

Y

Y

Y

Hair

Y

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

Fatty acid ethyl esters

Blood

Y

Yd

Y

Yc

Y

N

Y

Y

Hair

Y

Yd

N

N

Y

U

U

U

Phosphatidylethanols

Blood/erythrocytes

Y

Yd

Y

Y

Y

Y

U

N

Beer

Iso-α-acids (IAAs)

Blood/urine

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

U

Y

Y

IAAs + reduced IAAs

Blood/urine

Y

U

Y

Y

Y

U

Y

U

Isoxanthohumol

Urine

Y

Y/Ne

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Hordenine and its metabolites

Blood/urine

Y

U

Y

U

Y

U

Y

Y

Combined markerf

Urine

Y

U

Y

Y

Y

U

U

U

Humulinone

Urine

Y

U

U

U

U

U

U

U

Wine

Resveratrol and conjugated metabolites

Blood/urine/LDL

Y

U

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Tartaric acid

Urine

Yg

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Aniseed spirit

Anethole

Blood

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

U

Y

U

Peppermint liquor

Menthone

Blood

Y

Y

Y

U

N

U

Y

U

Isomenthone

Blood

Y

Y

Y

U

N

U

Y

U

Neomenthol

Blood

Y

Y

Y

U

N

U

Y

U

Menthol

Blood

Y

Y

Y

U

N

U

Y

U

  1. aThe answers Y and N in this table mean that in specific situations, the marker has shown validity for the aspect in question. For any specific use, the marker validity has to be reconsidered carefully
  2. b(1) Plausibility, (2) dose–response, (3) time-response, (4) robustness, (5) reliability, (6) stability, (7) analytical performance, (8) reproducibility
  3. cUnexplained background levels commonly reported
  4. dNot well documented at intakes below 5–10 g alcohol
  5. eY is for males, N for females
  6. fN-methyl tyramine sulfate, iso-α-acids, tricyclohumols, pyro-glutamyl proline, 2-ethyl malate
  7. gNot plausible as a unique marker of wine intake but as a general marker of grape products