Fig. 2

A schematic diagram of inflammatory pathways involved in ovarian carcinogenesis and their inhibition by phytochemicals. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) produced by inflammatory cells cause DNA damage to neighboring cells (tumor initiation). Activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in inflammatory cells leads to the production of inflammatory cytokines, which activate transcription factors, such as NF-κB and STAT-3, in initiated cells to promote cell proliferation, anti-apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis (tumor promotion and progression). Phytochemicals block each step of ovarian carcinogenesis through down-regulation of iNOS and COX-2 expression, inhibition of inflammatory cytokines, and the suppression of pleiotropic transcription factors NF-κB and STAT-3