Table 6 Overview of modulated processes for OGTT, OLTT and OPGLTT

Gut

Host–microbe interaction

Defense against pathogens

Gastrointestinal functioning

Absorption

Intestinal integrity

Incretin production

↑

↑^a

↑^a

Satiety hormone production

↑^a

Gut-mediated inflammation

–^a

Adipose tissue

Lipolysis

↓^a

↑^a

↓

↑^a

Adipose insulin sensitivity

Expandability

Lipokine and adipokine production

–

↑^a

↑^a

Macrophage infiltration

Systemic stress response

Systemic insulin sensitivity

↑^a

–

↑^a

Oxidative stress

↓^a

↑^a

↑^a

Nitrosative stress

↑^a

↑^a

Chronic low-grade inflammation

–

–^a

↑^a

Metabolic flexibility

↑^a

–^a

ER stress

↓

↑

Muscle

Protein metabolism

↑^a

Muscle tissue injury control

↓

Muscle insulin sensitivity

Liver

β-oxidation

↓^a

↑^a

Citric acid cycle

↑

Ketogenesis

↓^a

↑

Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis

↑^a

↑

Purine degradation

↓

Hepatic protein metabolism

Lipoprotein production

↓^a

↑^a

↑^a

Bile production

↓^a

Hepatic fat metabolism

Fibrosis and inflammation

Hepatic insulin sensitivity

Hepatic injury control

↑^a

Kidney

(Re)absorption

↑

Urea cycle

↓

↑

Vasculature

Blood pressure regulation

↓^a

↓^a

↓^a

NO formation

↓

↓

Vascular flexibility

↓^a

Adhesion

↑^a

↑^a

↑^a

Complement system

Coagulation system

Pancreas

α-Cell

β-Cell

↑^a

↑^a

↑^a

Brain

Endocrine response

↓

Secondary messengers

Mental performance

Appetite

HPA axis

–^a

Neurotransmitters and precursors

↓

↑