Table 1 Randomized controlled trials and inflammatory response
Parallel, cross-over, and post-prandial studies | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study | Subjects | N (sex) | Age (years) | Duration and study design | Intervention/intake | hsCRP/CRP | TNFα | IL-6 | ICAM | VCAM | MCP1 |
Dairy | |||||||||||
Van Meijl & Mensink, 2010, The Netherlands | Healthy BMI 32.0 | 35 (M/F) | 49.5 | 8 weeks cross-over | Dairy products: 500 mL low-fat (1.5%) milk and 150 g low-fat (1.5%) yogurt per day Control products: 600 mL fruit juice and 43 g fruit biscuits (3 pieces) per day | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | |
Van Meijl & Mensink, 2011, The Netherlands | Healthy BMI > 27 | 35 (M/F) | M: 52.3 F: 47.2 | 8 weeks cross-over | Dairy products: 500 mL low-fat (1.5%) milk and 150 g low-fat (1.5%) yogurt per day Control products: 600 mL fruit and 43 g fruit biscuits (3 pieces) per day | ↔ | |||||
Nestel et al., 2013, Australia | Healthy BMI 30.1 | 12 (M/F) | 60.5 | 3 weeks cross-over | Full-fat diet (fermented): Cheddar cheese (85 g/day) and full-cream yogurt (600 g/day). Full-fat diet (non-fermented): butter (30 g/day) and cream (70 mL/day). Low-fat diet: 1% fat milk (400 mL/day) and < 1% fat yogurt (200 g/day) | ↔ | ↔ | ↑with full-fat non-fermented diet vs. full-fat fermented and low-fat diet | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ |
Werner et al., 2013, Denmark | Healthy BMI < 35 | 38 (M/F) | 50–70 | 12 weeks parallel | All buns contained 13 g of butter, which yielded a fat intake of from the test diet of 39 g/day Grazing: buns with butter from pasture-grazing cows Conventional: buns with butter from conventional fed Danish cows | ↔ | |||||
Druin-Chartier et al., 2015, Canada | Abdominal obesity BMI 31.9 | 27 (F) | 57 | 6 weeks cross-over | Isocaloric milk drinks; 20% of calories from partly skimmed milk (2% fat) and control NCEP milk-free diet. MILK phase: 3.2 serv/day. NCEP control phase: 0 serv/day. | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | |||
Venkatramanam et al., 2016, Canada | Healthy BMI 25–30 | 15 (M/F) | 46.6 | 8 weeks cross-over | 1 L/day. Group 1: milk natural enriched with CLA (NCLA) (4.2%) containing [cis 9, trans 11 (c9,t11)] providing 1.3 g CLA/day. Group 2: milk enriched with synthetic CLA (SCLA) (4.2%) [trans 10, cis 12 (t10, c12) and c9, t11] providing 1.3 g CLA/day. Group 3: Untreated milk providing 0.2 g CLA/day | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Nuts | |||||||||||
Lopez-Uriarte et al., 2010, Spain | MetS BMI 25–35 | 50 (M/F) | 51.8 | 12 weeks parallel | Nut group: AHA dietary guideline enriched with a daily supplement of 30 g/day of mixed raw nuts with skin (15 g walnuts, 7.5 g almonds and 7.5 g/day hazelnuts) Control group: quantitative recommendations according to the AHA dietary guidelines | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Casas-Agustench et al., 2011, Spain | MetS Nut gr: BMI 31.6 Control: BMI 30.0 | 50 (M/F) | 18–65 | 12 weeks parallel | Nut diet group: prudent diet supplemented with nuts; daily supplement of 30 g of raw unpeeled nuts (15 g of walnuts, 7.5 g of almonds and 7.5 g of hazelnuts) Control diet group: prudent diet | ↔ | ↓ with nuts vs. control (disappear when weight adjusted) | ↔ | |||
Bakthtiary et al., 2012, Iran | MetS BMI 27.5–28.8 | 75 (F) | 60–70 | 12 week parallel | Group A: 35 g soy nuts Group B: 35 g TSP (Textured soy protein) Group C: control | ↔ | |||||
Ling Tey et al., 2013, New Zealand | Healthy BMI 30.6 | 107 (M/F) | 42.5 | 12 weeks parallel | Group 1: 30 g/day of hazelnuts Group 2: 60 g/day of hazelnuts Control: no nuts | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ||
Barbour et al., 2015, Australia | Healthy BMI 31 | 61 (M/F) | 65 | 12 weeks cross-over | Peanut diet: 84 g (M) or 56 g (F) of high oleic peanuts 6 days per week Control diet: habitual diet devoid of nuts | ↔ | |||||
Vegetable oils | |||||||||||
Gagliardi et al., 2010, Brazil | MetS BMI 31.3 | 53 (M/F) | 47.4 | 5 weeks parallel | Butter: 18 g/day No-trans margarine: 36 g/day Plant sterol margarine: 30 g/day and 2.4 g plant sterol/day Equal amounts of total lipids (12.6–12.86 g/day) and calories (96–115.5/day) in the three groups | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Masson & Mensink, 2011, The Netherlands | Healthy BMI 25–30 | 14 (M) | 18–70 | 0–480 min post-prandial Cross-over | 2 muffins and a glass of water (250 mL). Comparable energy content (4095 kJ and 4253 kJ, respectively) Butter meal: 50 g butterfat Margarine meal: 40 g margarine plus 10 g safflower oil | ↓ with margarine vs. butter | ↓ with margarine vs. butter | ↔ | ↓ with margarine vs. butter | ↔ | |
Bjermo et al., 2012, Sweden, HEPFAT trial | Abdominal obese PUFA diet: BMI 30.3 SFA diet: BMI 31.3 | 61 (M/F) | 30–65 | 10 weeks parallel | PUFA diet: (received foods rich in n6 linoleic acid, ie,scones (baked-on sunflower oil), margarine, sunflower oil, and sunflower seeds) corresponding to 15% of energy as linoleic acid. SFA diet: (received scones (baked-on butter) and butter). No altering their intakes of total fat and the type and amount of carbohydrates and protein. | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Telle-Hansen et al., 2012, Norway | Healthy BMI 27–40 | 23 (M/F) | 18–70 | 12 weeks parallel | Test products: 20 g margarine, 11 g mayonnaise (both rapeseed oil based), 12 g flaxseed oil. High ALA-DAG: 8.29 g/day. High ALA-TAG: 8.51 g/day. | ↔ | |||||
aVan Dijk et al., 2012, The Nederlands | Lean, obese, or obese with diabetes | 42 (M) | 50–70 | 0–4 h post-prandial cross-over | Isocaloric milkshake with 95 g of fat (88% of energy) SFA shake: 95 g palm oil (54% of energy/total fat) MUFA shake: 95 g high oleic sunflower oil (83% of energy/total fat) n-3 PUFA shake: 40 g palm oil and 55 g Marinol D-40 (40% DHA) (40% of energy/total fat) | ↔ | ↑mRNA with MUFA and n3 PUFA vs. SFA | ||||
Esser et al., 2013, The Netherlands | Lean BMI 23.8 Obese BMI 32.4 | 18 lean 18 obese (M/F) | 61.8 / 62.6 | 0–4 h post-prandial Cross-over | Isocaloric milkshake with 95 g of fat (88% of energy) SFA shake: 95 g palm oil (54% of energy/total fat) MUFA shake: 95 g high oleic sunflower oil (83% of energy/total fat) n-3 PUFA shake: 40 g palm oil and 55 g Marinol D-40 (40% DHA) (40% of energy/total fat) | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ||
Lee et al., 2014, USA | Early stage T2DM or MetS BMI > 23 and < 45 | 59 (M/F) | > 21 | 8 weeks parallel | Corn oil (CO): 9 daily CO capsules (3.9 g LA and < <0.01 g EPA pr day. Botanical oil (BO): combination of echium and borage oils); 10 daily BO capsules (7 echium and 3 borage) (1.80 g LA and 0 g EPA pr day). Fish oil (FO): 9 daily FO capsules. (0.48 g LA and 3.58 g EPA pr day) | ↔ | |||||
Rozati et al., 2015, USA | Healthy BMI 29 | 41 (M/F) | 72 | 12 weeks parallel | Olive oil/spread group (OO): extra virgin olive oil Control oil/spread group (CON): 10% corn oil, 90% soybean oil, spread based on butter | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Stonehouse et al., 2015, Australia | Healthy BMI 25–35 | 28 (M) | 32–65 | 1–5 h post-prandial Cross-over | Chicken fried in oil, bread fried in oil and a small salad PO: 40 g palmolein oil OO: 40 g olive oil | ↔ | |||||
Teng et al., 2015, Malaysia | MetS BMI 30.9 | 30 (M/F) | 33.8 | 0–6 h post-prandial cross-over | CARB meal: high carbohydrate/low fat MUFA meal: monounsaturated fatty acids-enriched PUFA meal: polyunsaturated fatty acids-enriched SFA meal: saturated fatty acids-enriched | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | |||
Mixed diets | |||||||||||
Camhi et al., 2010, USA, The Diet and Exercise for Elevated Risk Trial (DEER) | Dyslipidemic and MetS BMI >32 | 278 (M/F) | F: 57.6 M: 49 | 1 year parallel | Control group: no intervention Exercise group: aerobic exercise only Diet group: NCEP step 2 diet Diet-plus-exercise group: both aerobic exercise and NCEP step 2 diet | ↓with diet and diet + ex (in women with MetS) | |||||
De Mello et al., 2011, Finland, The Sysdimet study | Impaired glucose metabolism BMI 31.1 | 104 (M/F) | 59 | 12 weeks parallel | Healthy diet: wholegrain cereals, wholemeal pasta, fatty fish, vegetable oil and vegetable oil products, bilberries Whole-grain-enriched diet (WGED): wholegrain cereals, wholemeal pasta, one whole grain oat snack bar per day, not to change their current fish and berry consumption. Control group: avoid wholegrain cereals and pasta, no bilberry intake, fatty fish only 1 a week | ↓with WEGD vs. control (without statin users) | ↔ | ↔ | |||
Uusitupa et al., 2013, Nordic multicenter study, The SYSDIET study | MetS BMI 31.6 | 166 (M/F) | 55 | 18–24 weeks parallel | Healthy Nordic diet: ≥ 25% of total energy as whole grain of which ≥ 50%as rye, barley or oat. Whole-grain pasta and unpolished rice (≥ 6 g fiber/100 g) ≥ 2–3 meals per week. Low salt content (≤ 1%) in breads cereals with no added sugar or honey. Bread (≥ 6 g fiber/100 g) ≥ 6 slices per day. Fruits, vegetables and berries ≥ 500 g/day, rapeseed oil, low fat liquid dairy ≤ 1% of fat, cheese ≤ 17%, fatty fish, white meat, fruit and berry juices. Control diet: refined cereals and wheat. 200–250 g fruits and vegetables, no bilberries, butter, no limits of dairy products, ≤ 1 meal of fish per week, meat/beverages: no limitation | ↔ | ↔ | ||||
Lesna et al., 2013, Czech Republic | Dyslipidemic BMI 31.63 | 14 (F) | >45 | 3 weeks cross-over | SAFA diet: a fully controlled diet high in SFA PUFA diet: a fully controlled diet high in PUFA | ↓with PUFA vs. SFA diet | |||||
The LIPGENE study | |||||||||||
Petersson et al., 2010, Pan European, The LIPGENE study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 417 (M/F) | 35–70 | 12 weeks parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic sunflower oil | ↔ | |||||
Perez-Martinez et al., 2010, Pan European, The LIPGENE study | Met BMI 20–40 | 74 (M/F) | 35–70 | 0–8 h post-prandial challenge (after 12 weeks intervention) parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | ↓with HMUFA vs. HSFA and LCHCC n3 | ↔ | ||||
aMeneses et al., 2011, Pan European, The LIPGENE study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 39 (M/F) | 35–70 | 0–4 h post-prandial challenge (after 12 weeks intervention) parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day long chain omega-3 LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | ↔ ↔mRNA | ↔ ↔mRNA | ||||
Tierney et al., 2011, Pan-European, The LIPGENE study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 417 (M/F) | 35–70 | 12 weeks parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | ↔ | |
aCruz-Teno et al., 2012, Pan European, The LIPGENE Study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 75 (M/F) | 35–70 | 0–4 h post-prandial challenge (after 12 weeks intervention) parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | ↔ ↓mRNA with HMUFA vs. HSFA diet | ↓with HMUFA and LCHCC n3 vs. HSFA | ||||
Camargo et al., 2013, Pan European, The LIPGENE Study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 39 (M/F) | 35–75 | 0–4 h post-prandial challenge (after 12 weeks intervention) parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | No between groups measures were performed | |||||
Rangel-Zuniga et al., 2015, Pan European, The LIPGENE Study | MetS BMI 20–40 | 417 (M/F) | 35–70 | 12 weeks parallel | HSFA: high SFA HMUFA: high MUFA LFHCC-n3: low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1.24 g/day LC omega-3 PUFA LFHCC (placebo): low fat high complex carbohydrate w/ 1 g/day high oleic Sunflower oil | No between groups measures were performed | |||||